Ebook "STABILITY OF TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS TO PLANT PESTS: AN AXIOMATIC APPROACH"
Gleb I.Vasechko,
Cand.Sc.(Biology)
© Gleb Vasechko, 2005 All rights reserved.
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Created 20.03.2005
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"This book is a synthesis of ideas as to stability of ecosystems..."
Gleb Vasechko.
Gleb Vasechko.
PART I. A LIST OF THE AXIOMS. Continuation.
AXIOM 4. STRUCTURE of ECOSYSTEM STABILITY to PLANT PESTS
Structure of ecosystem stability (SES) -" this is a characteristic of the whole complex of CESPPs operating in an ecosystem of a given type. A type of SES embraces ecosystems where it operates the same CESPPs in dominants and in other strata of vegetation. A totality of ecosystems embracing a type of SES will be referred to as "a formation." Meaning of this term is close to such a definition: a formation as "A climax community of plants in a biome" (Longman and Payne, 1979, p. 332, GA128). True, this is a climax community, but in a definite type of ecosystems, rather than in a biome.
The available data allow proposing SES for the following formations in temperate climate:
4.1. Forests.
4.1.1. Evergreen coniferous trees, Coniferales.
4.1.2.. Deciduous coniferous trees -" the larch, Larix spp.
4.1.3. Deciduous, Angiospermae trees.
4.2. Grasslands.
4.2.1. Meadows.
4.2.2. Steppes and prairies
4.3. Deserts.
4.4. Tundra.
4.5. Forest-Tundra.
4.6. Bogs.
4.7. Fens.
4.8. Marches.
4.9. Riverain formations.
4.9.1. Brushwood on the sandy soil along rivers.
4.9.2. Riverain forest.
4.9.3. Riverain grassy formation.
4.9.4. Reed seas.
The types of SES 4.1.1, 4.1.2., and 4.1.3. concern forest ecosystems having great differentiation of tissues within a tree, and a complicated structure (a number of the strata). The components of the structure are as follows:
- The main story (stories) of dominants, i.e. matured trees.
- Regrowth of dominants, i.e. young trees in the age range older than the seedling period. but younger than maturity.
- Seedlings of dominants.
- Seeds of dominants in the soil.
- Undergrowth (a shrub stratum).
- Ground grass cover.
The next steps in this classification consist in statement of plant parts, tissues and groups of PPs, which pretend to consume them. Such a group consumes plant tissues by a similar mode, i.e. it has certain life strategy. A group of PPs having similar life strategy counteracts with specific composition of CESPPs. It will be shown the main CESPPs, i.e. those sufficient for maintenance the level ESPPs optimal in given circumstances.
The classification of SES of diverse formations according to above principles is given in the Table 7.
Table 7. Structure of ecosystem stability to plant pests in diverse plant formations
| The types of formations | Type of vegetation | Stories of vegetation | Plant species and parts, groups of PPs with the similar life strategies | The main CESPPs operating in suppression of groups PPs with similar life strategies |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| 4.1. Forests | 4.1.1. Evergreen coniferous trees, Coniferales | 4.1.1.a. The main story of dominants | Pines, Needles, Insect defoliators | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Permanent |
| Firs and spruces, Flushing buds and young needles, Insect defoliators | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Permanent; 2.1.2.1.1. Superevasion from herbivores; 2.1.2.4.2. Heterogeneity of a species composition within a stock of dominants | |||
| Pines, Avian defoliators | 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators | |||
| Roots, stems, branches, Stem borers | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1.Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Permanent; 2.1.1.1.1. Nonpreference to herbivores; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores, 2.2.1.2.1. Vertebrate predators (especially the woodpeckers) | |||
| Pine, Shoots, Pine shoot moths | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), and Structural, Permanent | |||
| Rootlets, Chewing insects | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Staminate "flowers", Chewing insects |
2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores and 2.1.2.1.1. Superevasion from herbivores | |||
| Seeds, Herbivores | 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores; 2.1.2.3.1. Disappearance from herbivores | |||
| Needles, shoots, stems and roots, Sap-sucking arthropods, non-gall formers | 2.1.1.3.1.1. Tolerance to herbivores, Deactivation of arthropod digestive juices; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.2.1.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural and Physiological biochemical, 2.1.1.4.1. Evasion from herbivores | |||
| Needles, shoots, stems and roots, Sap-sucking arthropods, non-gall formers | 2.5.1.Deterioration and/or shortage of food, 2.5.1.2. Raising of secondary structural antibiosis, 2.5.1.2.1. Exuding of protective substances on a surface of buds or developing of protective barriers in affected tissues, 2.5.1.2.1.1. Starvation | |||
| Needles and shoots, Sap-sucking arthropods, gall-forming species | 2.1.2.4.1.Hereditary heterogeneity of a stock of host-plants; 2.1.1.3.1.4. Tolerance to gall forming arthropods | |||
| Oleoresinoferous tissues, Resinocols | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Permanent; 2.1.2.2. Disappearance | |||
| Diverse parts of trees, Phytonematodes | 2.1.1.2. Antibiosis; 2.1.2.4.1. Hereditary heterogeneity of a stock of host-plants | |||
| Tree crowns, Plant semi-parasites | 2.1.1.3.2.2. Tolerance to phytopathogens, Limited compatibility; | |||
| Diverse parts of trees, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.2.2.1. and 2.1.1.2.2.2. Antibiosis to phytopathogens, Structural, Permanent, and Physiological (biochemical), Permanent; 2.1.1.3.2.3. Tolerance to phytopathogens, Demarcation of infested tissues; 2.1.1.3.2.1.1. Symbiosis with former pathogens, Compatibility; 2.1.2.4.1. Hereditary heterogeneity of a stock of host-plants | |||
| 4.1.1.b. Regrowth of dominants | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores; 2.2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators | ||
| Defoliators | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1.Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Permanent; 2.1.1.3.1.2.Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Stem borers at the aged crash of forest | 2.1.1.1.1. Nonpreference to herbivores | |||
| Stem borers affecting young trees | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1.Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Persistent | |||
| 4.1.1.c. Seedlings of dominants | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | ||
| Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.2.2. Antibiosis to phytopathogens | |||
| 4.1.1.d. Seeds of dominants in the soil | Herbivores | 2.1.2.3. Supertolerance | ||
| Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.2.2. Antibiosis to phytopathogens | |||
| 4.1.2. Deciduous coniferous trees the larch, Larix spp. | 4.1.2.a. The main story of dominants | Needles, Defoliators | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores | |
| Flushing buds, needles, Herbivores | 2.1.2.1.1. Superevasion from herbivores; 2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Stems, branches, Stem borers | 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical) | |||
| Buds, shoots, needles, Gall-forming arthropods | 2.1.2.4.1. Hereditary heterogeneity of a stock of host-plants; 2.1.1.3.1.4. Tolerance to herbivores, Tolerance to gall-forming arthropods | |||
| 4.1.3. Deciduous, Angiospermae trees | 4.1.3.a. The main story of dominants | Defoliators The early-spring guild, W.C. Cookâ's zone (a) |
2.1.2.1.1. Superevasion from herbivores; 2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |
|
Defoliators, The spring-summer guild, W.C. Cookâ's zone (b) |
2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| 4.1. Forests | Defoliators, The spring-summer guild, W.C. Cookâ's zone (a) | 2.5. Effects of crowding; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | ||
| Defoliators, The spring-summer guild, W.C. Cookâ's zone (c) | 2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Defoliators, The spring-summer guild, W.C. Cookâ's zone (d) | 2.3. Routine weather suppression | |||
| Defoliators, The summer-fall and fall-spring guilds, W.C. Cookâ's zone (b) | 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Defoliators, The summer-fall and fall-spring guilds, W.C. Cookâ's zone (b) | 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Buds, Herbivores | 2.1.1.1.1.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. Nonpreference; Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), Permanent | |||
| Foliage, Sap-sucking arthropods | 2.1.1.3.1.1. Tolerance to herbivores, Deactivation of arthropods digestive juices; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores. In the condition of low activity of 2.2.1., it is probably an operation of 2.1.1.2.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural | |||
| Foliage and buds, Gall-forming arthropods | 2.1.1.3.1.4. Tolerance to gall-forming arthropods; 2.1.2.4.1. Hereditary heterogeneity of a stock of host-plants | |||
| Oak catkins, Arthropod herbivores | 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores | |||
| Acorns, Chewing arthropod herbivores | 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores | |||
| Acorns, Chewing arthropod herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.1. Tolerance to herbivores, Deactivation of arthropod digestive juices; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores In the condition of low activity of 2.2.1., it is probably evolving of the traits of 2.1.1.2.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural | |||
| Acorns, Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.2.1.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural, Permanent, 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores | |||
| Stems and branches, Stem borers | 2.1.1.1.1. Nonpreference to herbivores, 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical), and 2.2.1.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores, Predators (especially the woodpeckers) | |||
| Foliage, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2.4. Tolerance to phytopathogens, Permissible susceptibility, 2.1.1.2.2.1. Antibiosis to phytopathogens, Structural | |||
| Stems, branches, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2.5. Tolerance to phytopathogens, Indifference to host-plant losses, 2.1.1.3.2.3. Demarcation of affected tissues | |||
| Roots, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2.3. Demarcation of infested tissues, or 2.1.1.3.2.1.1.Symbiosis with former pathogens, Compatibility | |||
| 4.1.3.b. Regrowth of dominants | Foliage, Insect herbivores | 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | ||
| Crowns, stems, Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance; 2.2.2.1. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.2.1. Antibiosis to herbivores 2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores | |||
| Stems, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2.4. Tolerance to phytopathogens, Permissible susceptibility | |||
| 4.1.3.c. Seedlings of dominants | All plant parts, Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.2.2.1. Disappearance; 2.1.2.3.1 Supertolerance; 2.2.2.1. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | ||
| All plant parts, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2.4. Tolerance to phytopathogens, Permissible susceptibility | |||
| 4.1.3.d. Acorns on/in the soil | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.2.1.1.4. Superevasion from herbivores, Protection of vulnerable plant stages; 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance; 2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores | ||
| 4.1.1.e., 4.1.2.e., 4.1.3.e. | Under-growth (a shrub stratum) | All plant parts, Herbivores, Hoofed animals | 2.1.1.2.1.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural and Physiological (biochemical), Permanent 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to hebivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores | |
| 4.1.1.f, 4.1.2.f., 4.1.3.f. | Ground grass cover | All plant parts, Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores Physiological (biochemical) and Structural, Permanent; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |
| All plant parts, Invertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores | |||
| 44.2. Grasslands | 4.2.1. Meadows | Grassy vegetation | All grass parts, Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.2.1.1.1.; 2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, 2.2.2.2. Predators; 2.1.1.2.1.2.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural, and Physiological (biochemical), Permanent; 2.1.2.5. Parasitic antibiosis |
| All grass parts, Invertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. and 2.1.1.3.1.3. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues, and Indifference to losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.4.1. Evasion from herbivores | |||
| All grass parts, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2. Tolerance to phytopathogens, and 2.1.1.2.2. Antibiosis to phytopathogens | |||
| 4.2.2. Steppes and prairies | Grassy vegetation | Above ground parts, Vertebrate herbivores, Soil-dwelling rodents | 2.5.1.3.2.2.Decrease of body weight and fecundity; 2.5.1.4.1. Mortality due to diverse factors; 2.5.4.1. Suppression of herbivores over the period, which provides a reprieve for restoring of vitality of dominants; 2.5.1.7.1. Direct mortality; 2.5.1.11.1. Decrease of body weight and fecundity; 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; 2.1.2.3.1.Supertolerance to herbivores | |
| Above ground parts, Vertebrate herbivores, Hoofed animals |
2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; 2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, 2.2.2.2. Predators | |||
| Roots, Vertebrate herbivores, rodents and hoofed animals | 2.1.1.2.1.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.2 Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural, and Physiological (biochemical) | |||
| Above ground parts, Invertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. and 2.1.1.3.1.3. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues, and Indifference to losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.4.1. Evasion from herbivores; 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores; in the locust, Dociostaurus moroccanus on the level ESPPs 3.1. - 2.3. Routine weather suppression, and on the level 3.3. - it operates CESPPs 2.5.1.4. Emigration in the adult stage in advance of food deterioration and/or shortage with final effect 2.5.1.4.1. Mortality due to diverse factors | |||
| Roots, Invertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.2.1.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.2 Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural, and Physiological (biochemical) | |||
| Above ground parts, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2. Tolerance to phytopathogens | |||
| Roots, Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.2.2. Antibiosis to phytopathogens | |||
| 4.3. Deserts | - | Grassy vegetation | Vertebrate Herbivores, Tortoises | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.4.1. Evasion from herbivores; 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; 2.2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators |
| - | Vertebrate herbivores, Soil-dwelling rodents | 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; 2.5. Effects of crowding: final effects - 2.5.1.4.1. Mortality due to diverse factors; 2.5.1.10.1. Decrease of fecundity and increase of mortality due to weather stress; 2.5.2.1. Mortality under effect of predators and parasites; 2.5.3.1.4. Mass mortality due to affection by acute form of infection; 2.5.5.1. Affections by pathogens due to deterioration of sanitary state of the media; 2.5.4.1.Suppression of herbivores over the period, which provide a reprieve for restoring of vitality of dominants; 2.1.2.3.1. Supertolerance to herbivores | ||
| - | Grassy and shrubby vegetation | Above ground parts of plants, Vertebrate herbivores, Hoofed animals | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.4.1. Evasion from herbivores; 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; 2.2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators | |
| Locusts. The rest of invertebrate herbivores |
2.2.1.2.1. The level ESPPs3.1.: 2.1.1.2.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural, Permanent (against young larval instars); 2.3.11. Drought devastating food resource, 2.3.11.1. Mortality due to starvation and at emigration; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores. The level ESPPs3.3.: 2.5.3.1.4. Mass mortality due to affection by acute form of infection and parasitization. 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.1.2.1. Vertebrate predators, and 2.2.1.2.2. Invertebrate predators (ants) | |||
| Phytopathogens | 2.3. Routine weather suppression | |||
| 4.4. Tundra | Lichens, Lichenes and mosses, Bryophita | - | Vertebrate herbivores, hoofed animals | 2.1.1.2.1.5.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Nutrient inadequacy of host-plant tissues, Permanent; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.4. Periodic (bottle-neck) suppression; and 2.2.2.2. Natural enemies of vertebrate herbivores, Predators |
| 4.4. Tundra | Lichens, Lichenes and mosses, Bryophita | - | Vertebrate herbivores, Soil-dwelling rodents | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of host-plant tissues; 2.5. Effects of crowding: final effects - 2.5.1.4.1. Mortality due to diverse factors, 2.5.3.1.4. Mass mortality due to affection by acute form of infection, 2.5.3.1.6. Mortality due to inadequate behavior, 2.5.4.1. Suppression of herbivores over the period, which provides a reprieve for restoring of vitality of dominants |
| Invertebrate herbivores | 2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| - | Phytopathogens | 2.3. Routine weather suppression | ||
| 4.5. Forest -Tundra | Lichens, Lichenes, mosses, Bryophita, Evergreen coniferous and deciduous tree species | - | Lichens and mosses | The same CESPPs as in 4.4. Tundra |
| Evergreen coniferous species, Defoliators | 2.3. Routine weather suppression | |||
| Deciduous coniferous species - the larch, Defoliators | 2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Deciduous (Angiospermae) tree species, Defoliators | 2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues | |||
| Trees of divers species | - | Stem borers | 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical); 2.3. Routine weather suppression | |
| 4.6. Bogs | Mosses, Bryophita spp. | - | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.2.1.5.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Nutrient inadequacy of host-plant tissues, Permanent |
| Invertebrate herbivores | 2.2.1.3. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores, Pathogens | |||
| Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.2.2.2. Antibiosis to phytopathogens, Physiological (biochemical) | |||
| 4.7. Fens | The reeds and the sedges | - | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.2.1.1. Antibiosis to herbivores, Structural |
| Invertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.1.1.4.1. Evasion from herbivores | |||
| 4.7. Fens | Trees of diverse species | - | Stem borers | 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical) |
| 4.8. Marches | The rushes and similar plants | - | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.2.1.1. and 2.1.1.2.1.2. Structural and Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical); 2.1.1.2.1.3. Symbiosis with fungi toxic for herbivores |
| Phytopathogens | 2.1.1.3.2. Tolerance to phytopathogens | |||
| 4.9.1. Brushwood on the sandy soil along rivers | Brushy willows | - | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.2.2. Natural enemies of herbivores, Predators |
| Invertebrate herbivores | The same CESPPs as in 4.1.3.e. Undergrowth (a shrubby story), Deciduous (Angiospermae) trees | |||
| 4.9.2. Riverain forest | The elder, Alnus spp., the poplar, Populus spp., and the willow Salix spp. |
- | All parts of trees, Invertebrate herbivores | The same CESPPs as in 4.1.3.a Deciduous (Angiospermae) trees |
| Grassy cover | Vertebrate herbivores | The same CESPPs as in 4.7. Fens | ||
| 4.9.3. Riverain grassy formation | A complex of poisonous and unpalatable plant species | - | Vertebrate herbivores | 2.1.1.2.1.2. Antibiosis to herbivores, Physiological (biochemical); 2.1.1.1.1. Nonpreference to herbivores; 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues (in the juvenile stage); |
| 4.9.4. Reed seas | The reeds and the calamuses | - | Locusta migratoria | On the level ESPPs 3.1:2.3. Routine weather suppression; 2.3.10.1. Mortality of larvae due to excessive moisture content in sites of hibernation, 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues On the level ESPPs 3.3.:2.5. Effects of crowding: subsequent effect 2.5.1.4. Emigration in the adult stage in advance of food shortage, 2.5.1.4.1. Mortality due to diverse factors |
| - | Other species of insect herbivores | On the level ESPPs 3.1.: 2.1.1.3.1.2. Tolerance to herbivores, Repair or compensation of losses of host-plant tissues; 2.2.1. Natural enemies of invertebrate herbivores, 2.1.1.3.1.3. Indifference to losses of host-plant tissue. On the level ESPPs 3.3..: 2.5.1.2. Raising of secondary structural antibiosis |
